The High Stability and Selectivity of Electrochemical Sensor Using Low-Cost Diamond Nanoparticles for the Detection of Anti-Cancer Drug Flutamide in Environmental Samples

At a Glance

Metadata	Details
Publication Date	2024-02-02
Journal	Sensors
Authors	Nareshkumar Baskaran, Sanjay Ballur Prasanna, Yu‐Chien Lin, Yeh‐Fang Duann, Ren‐Jei Chung
Institutions	National Taipei University of Technology, Nanyang Technological University
Citations	14
Analysis	Full AI Review Included

Technical Documentation & Analysis: Diamond Nanoparticle Electrochemical Sensors

This document analyzes the research detailing the use of Diamond Nanoparticles (DNPs) for highly selective electrochemical sensing of Flutamide (FLT). It outlines the technical achievements and provides specific material and engineering solutions available through 6CCVD to advance and scale this research using high-purity, engineered MPCVD diamond materials.

Executive Summary

The research successfully demonstrates a novel, high-performance electrochemical sensor utilizing Diamond Nanoparticles (DNPs) as an electrode modifier for the detection of the anti-cancer drug Flutamide (FLT) in environmental water samples.

Material Innovation: DNPs modified a Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE), overcoming the insulating nature of bulk diamond by exhibiting superior electrocatalytic activity at the nanoscale.
High Sensitivity & Low LOD: The DNPs/SPCE sensor achieved a low Limit of Detection (LOD) of 0.023 µM for FLT, demonstrating exceptional sensitivity (0.403 µA µM^-1 cm^-2).
Wide Dynamic Range: The sensor provided an exceptionally wide linear response range, spanning from 0.025 µM to 605.65 µM, suitable for trace-level monitoring up to high concentrations.
Stability and Selectivity: The modified electrode exhibited excellent stability over 25 days and high selectivity against common interfering species (e.g., caffeine, glucose, uric acid).
Practical Application: The sensor was successfully employed for FLT monitoring in real-world environmental samples (pond and river water) with satisfactory recovery rates (91.5% to 99.2%).
Methodology: Performance was validated using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), Cyclic Voltammetry (CV), and Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV).

Technical Specifications

The following hard data points were extracted from the electrochemical performance analysis of the DNPs/SPCE sensor:

Parameter	Value	Unit	Context
Electrode Material	Diamond Nanoparticles (DNPs)	N/A	Modifier on SPCE
DNP Size (Source)	<10	nm	Sigma-Aldrich Nanopowder
Working Electrode Area	0.071	cm²	Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE)
Total Linear Response Range	0.025 to 605.65	µM	Overall detection capability (DPV)
Low Concentration Linear Range	0.025 to 20.65	µM	Correlation Coefficient (R²) = 0.999
High Concentration Linear Range	30.65 to 605.65	µM	Correlation Coefficient (R²) = 0.999
Limit of Detection (LOD)	0.023	µM	Calculated via DPV
Sensitivity	0.403	µA µM^-1 cm^-2	Electrochemical performance
Bare SPCE Charge Transfer Resistance (R_ct)	1255.25	Ω	Measured in 0.05 M [Fe(CN)₆]^3-/4-
Optimized Operating pH	7.0	N/A	Phosphate Buffer Solution (PBS)
Electrode Drying Temperature	50	°C	Post-drop casting fabrication step
Sensor Stability	25	Days	Maintained high current response

Key Methodologies

The fabrication and testing of the DNPs-modified SPCE sensor followed these critical steps:

SPCE Pre-treatment: Screen-Printed Carbon Electrodes (SPCEs) were thoroughly cleaned using deionized (DI) water and dried in an oven at 50 °C.
DNP Dispersion Preparation: 2 mg of <10 nm Diamond Nanoparticles were dispersed into 1 mL of DI water, creating a 2 mg/mL suspension.
Homogenization: The DNP dispersion was subjected to ultrasonication for 30 minutes to ensure uniform particle distribution.
Electrode Modification: 4 µL of the DNP suspension was drop cast onto the active surface of the pre-treated SPCE.
Curing: The DNPs/SPCE was dried at 50 °C to yield the final modified electrode.
Electrochemical Characterization: The electrocatalytic activity and electron transfer capability were analyzed using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) and Cyclic Voltammetry (CV).
Analytical Detection: Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV) was employed for quantitative FLT detection and determination of the linear range and LOD.
Real Sample Validation: DPV was used to measure FLT recovery rates in pre-treated pond water and river water samples, utilizing 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0) as the supporting electrolyte.

6CCVD Solutions & Capabilities

The research highlights the immense potential of diamond nanomaterials in advanced electrochemical sensing. While the paper utilized low-cost, drop-cast DNPs, 6CCVD specializes in high-purity, engineered MPCVD diamond films, offering superior stability, reproducibility, and intrinsic conductivity necessary for commercial and high-end scientific applications.

Applicable Materials for Advanced Electrochemical Sensing

To replicate or significantly extend this research into robust, scalable devices, 6CCVD recommends transitioning from drop-cast DNPs to high-quality, conductive MPCVD films:

Boron-Doped Diamond (BDD): The ideal material. BDD is intrinsically conductive, eliminating the reliance on nanoscale surface defects (sp² bonds) for electrocatalytic activity. BDD offers the widest potential window, lowest background current, and unparalleled stability for trace-level detection of environmental contaminants like FLT.
- 6CCVD Capability: We supply heavily Boron-Doped Diamond (BDD) films and wafers in custom thicknesses (0.1 µm to 500 µm) and dimensions.
Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD): For large-area sensor arrays or high-throughput applications, high-purity PCD films provide a robust, chemically inert platform.
- 6CCVD Capability: PCD plates/wafers available up to 125mm diameter, ideal for scaling up the sensor design beyond small SPCEs.

Customization Potential for Sensor Integration

The paper utilized small, commercial SPCEs with external reference (Ag/AgCl) and counter (Pt) electrodes. 6CCVD enables the integration of all three components onto a single, highly stable diamond substrate, crucial for miniaturization and commercialization.

Research Requirement	6CCVD Customization Solution	Technical Advantage
Electrode Size	Custom plates/wafers up to 125mm (PCD)	Enables high-density sensor arrays and industrial scale-up.
Surface Finish	Polishing to Ra < 1 nm (SCD) or Ra < 5 nm (Inch-size PCD)	Ensures highly reproducible surface chemistry and minimal non-specific adsorption, improving sensor stability and LOD.
Integrated Contacts	Custom Metalization Services (Au, Pt, Pd, Ti, W, Cu)	Allows for the deposition of robust, integrated contacts and reference electrodes directly onto the diamond film, replacing external wires.
Thickness Control	SCD/PCD films from 0.1 µm to 500 µm	Precise control over film thickness optimizes electrical properties and mechanical integration into microfluidic or portable devices.

Engineering Support

The successful detection of FLT relies on precise control over the diamond’s surface chemistry and conductivity. 6CCVD’s in-house PhD team specializes in optimizing MPCVD growth parameters to meet specific electrochemical requirements. We can assist researchers and engineers with material selection, doping levels, and surface termination strategies for similar environmental monitoring and anti-cancer drug detection projects.

Call to Action: For custom specifications or material consultation, visit 6ccvd.com or contact our engineering team directly.

View Original Abstract

In this study, a novel electrochemical sensor was created by fabricating a screen-printed carbon electrode with diamond nanoparticles (DNPs/SPCE). The successful development of the sensor enabled the specific detection of the anti-cancer drug flutamide (FLT). The DNPs/SPCE demonstrated excellent conductivity, remarkable electrocatalytic activity, and swift electron transfer, all of which contribute to the advantageous monitoring of FLT. These qualities are critical for monitoring FLT levels in environmental samples. Various structural and morphological characterization techniques were employed to validate the formation of the DNPs. Remarkably, the electrochemical sensor demonstrated a wide linear response range (0.025 to 606.65 μM). Additionally, it showed a low limit of detection (0.023 μM) and high sensitivity (0.403 μA μM−1 cm−2). Furthermore, the practicability of DNPs/SPCE can be successfully employed in FLT monitoring in water bodies (pond water and river water samples) with satisfactory recoveries.

Tech Support

Original Source

DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030985

References

2016 - Square Wave Cathodic Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetric Determination of the Anticancer Drugs Flutamide and Irinotecan in Biological Fluids Using Renewable Pencil Graphite Electrodes [Crossref]
2015 - Synthesis of Ag Nanoparticles for the Electrochemical Detection of Anticancer Drug Flutamide [Crossref]
2017 - A Facile Graphene Oxide Based Sensor for Electrochemical Detection of Prostate Anti-Cancer (Anti-Testosterone) Drug Flutamide in Biological Samples [Crossref]
2015 - Detection of Flutamide in Pharmaceutical Dosage Using Higher Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MS) Tandem Mass Coupled with Soxhlet Apparatus [Crossref]
1998 - Electrochemical Study of Flutamide, an Anticancer Drug, and Its Polarographic, UV Spectrophotometric and HPLC Determination in Tablets [Crossref]
2014 - Effects of the Commercial Antiandrogen Flutamide on the Biomarkers of Reproduction in Male Murray Rainbowfish (Melanotaenia fluviatilis) [Crossref]
2007 - Androgenic and Antiandrogenic Activities in Water and Sediment Samples from the River Lambro, Italy, Detected by Yeast Androgen Screen and Chemical Analyses [Crossref]
2018 - Determination of Flutamide and Two Major Metabolites Using HPLC-DAD and HPTLC Methods [Crossref]
2000 - New Spectrophotometric Method for the Determination of Flutamide in Pharmaceutical Preparations [Crossref]