Voltammetric determination of anti-malarial drug amodiaquine at a boron-doped diamond electrode surface in an anionic surfactant media
At a Glance
Section titled âAt a Glanceâ| Metadata | Details |
|---|---|
| Publication Date | 2022-12-30 |
| Journal | Macedonian Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering |
| Authors | Sara Kurdo Kamal, Yavuz Yardım |
| Institutions | Van YĂŒzĂŒncĂŒ Yıl Ăniversitesi |
| Citations | 3 |
| Analysis | Full AI Review Included |
Technical Documentation: Boron-Doped Diamond (BDD) for Ultra-Sensitive Electroanalytical Sensing
Section titled âTechnical Documentation: Boron-Doped Diamond (BDD) for Ultra-Sensitive Electroanalytical SensingâThis document analyzes the application of Boron-Doped Diamond (BDD) electrodes for the highly sensitive voltammetric determination of Amodiaquine (ADQ), an anti-malarial drug. The results confirm BDDâs superior performance, especially when coupled with adsorptive stripping techniques and surfactant media, making it an ideal material for advanced electroanalytical sensor development.
Executive Summary
Section titled âExecutive Summaryâ- Superior Material Performance: The study successfully utilized a Boron-Doped Diamond (BDD) electrode to achieve highly sensitive and reproducible electrochemical determination of Amodiaquine (ADQ).
- Ultra-Low Detection Limit: Achieved a Limit of Detection (LOD) of $6.5 \cdot 10^{^{-8}}$ mol L$^{^{-1}}$ ($0.03$ ”g ml$^{^{-1}}$), demonstrating the highest sensitivity compared to previously reported electrochemical ADQ sensors.
- Methodology: Employed Square-Wave Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry (SW-AdSV), a highly effective pulsed voltammetric technique, for quantification.
- Surfactant Enhancement: The presence of the anionic surfactant Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) significantly enhanced ADQ adsorption, resulting in oxidation peak signals approximately 3.0 times higher than those obtained in surfactant-free solutions.
- High Reproducibility: The BDD electrode exhibited excellent stability and repeatability, with Relative Standard Deviation (RSD) values of 5.39% (intra-day) and 6.26% (inter-day).
- Real-World Applicability: The proposed method demonstrated good recovery and selectivity, confirming its potential for routine analysis and direct determination of ADQ in complex environmental samples (tap water).
Technical Specifications
Section titled âTechnical SpecificationsâThe following table summarizes the critical material and performance parameters extracted from the research:
| Parameter | Value | Unit | Context |
|---|---|---|---|
| Electrode Material | Boron-Doped Diamond (BDD) | N/A | Working Electrode |
| Boron Doping Concentration | 1000 | ppm | Specified by manufacturer |
| Electrode Diameter | 3 | mm | Commercial BDD used |
| Optimal Supporting Electrolyte | Britton-Robinson (BR) Buffer | N/A | Fixed at pH 8.0 |
| Optimal Surfactant Concentration | $2 \cdot 10^{^{-4}}$ | mol L$^{^{-1}}$ | Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) |
| ADQ Oxidation Peak Potential | +0.34 | V | vs. Ag/AgCl reference electrode (SW-AdSV) |
| Linear Range (Concentration) | $2.2 \cdot 10^{^{-7}}$ to $4.3 \cdot 10^{^{-5}}$ | mol L$^{^{-1}}$ | Wide analytical range |
| Limit of Detection (LOD) | $6.5 \cdot 10^{^{-8}}$ | mol L$^{^{-1}}$ | Highest sensitivity achieved |
| Intra-day Reproducibility | 5.39 | % | Relative Standard Deviation (RSD) |
| Inter-day Reproducibility | 6.26 | % | Relative Standard Deviation (RSD) |
| Signal Enhancement | ~3.0 | times | Peak current increase with SDS vs. without SDS |
Key Methodologies
Section titled âKey MethodologiesâThe following steps outline the optimized electrochemical procedure for ADQ determination using the BDD electrode:
- Electrode Pre-treatment (Activation):
- The BDD surface was electrochemically activated in $0.5$ mol L$^{^{-1}}$ H${2}$SO${4}$.
- Anodic Activation: +1.8 V applied for 180 s.
- Cathodic Activation: -1.8 V applied for 180 s.
- Mechanical Cleaning: Gentle manual rubbing with a damp polishing cloth was performed between measurements.
- Electrochemical Setup:
- Three-electrode system used in a 10 ml glass cell maintained at $25 \pm 1$ °C.
- Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl (3 mol L$^{^{-1}}$ NaCl).
- Auxiliary Electrode: Platinum wire.
- Optimal Solution Preparation:
- Supporting electrolyte was Britton-Robinson (BR) buffer fixed at pH 8.0.
- Anionic surfactant SDS was added at an optimal concentration of $2 \cdot 10^{^{-4}}$ mol L$^{^{-1}}$.
- Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry (SW-AdSV) Protocol:
- Pre-concentration Potential ($E_{acc}$): Open-circuit condition was utilized, as potential variation showed no effect.
- Accumulation Time ($t_{acc}$): Optimized to 30 s while the solution was stirred at 500 rpm.
- Rest Period: 10 s applied after stirring to allow solution equilibrium.
- Anodic Scan: Applied from 0.0 V to +1.3 V.
- Optimized SWV Parameters:
- Frequency ($f$): 50 Hz.
- Pulse Amplitude ($\Delta E_{sw}$): 50 mV.
- Step Potential ($\Delta E_{s}$): 12 mV.
6CCVD Solutions & Capabilities
Section titled â6CCVD Solutions & CapabilitiesâThe successful implementation of BDD in this high-sensitivity electroanalytical application directly aligns with 6CCVDâs core manufacturing expertise. We provide customized MPCVD diamond solutions necessary to replicate, optimize, and scale this research.
Applicable Materials
Section titled âApplicable MaterialsâThe research relies on a BDD electrode with a specific doping level (1000 ppm) for optimal performance. 6CCVD offers the ideal material solution:
- Heavy Boron-Doped Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD-BDD): We provide PCD-BDD wafers and plates with precise, tunable boron doping concentrations. We can match the 1000 ppm requirement or supply higher/lower doping levels to allow researchers to optimize conductivity and electrochemical activity for specific analytes, ensuring maximum sensitivity and stability.
- Substrate Thickness: 6CCVD supplies BDD layers ranging from 0.1 ”m to 500 ”m, mounted on robust substrates up to 10 mm thick, providing mechanical stability essential for repeated electrochemical cycling and pre-treatment steps (e.g., in $0.5$ mol L$^{^{-1}}$ H${2}$SO${4}$).
Customization Potential
Section titled âCustomization PotentialâThe study utilized a small, 3 mm diameter commercial electrode. 6CCVDâs advanced manufacturing capabilities enable researchers to move beyond standard sizes and integrate BDD into complex systems:
- Large-Area Electrodes: We offer custom BDD plates and wafers up to 125 mm (PCD), facilitating the development of large-scale sensors or high-throughput screening platforms.
- Precision Fabrication: 6CCVD provides laser cutting services for custom geometries, allowing the fabrication of specific electrode shapes or integration into microfluidic devices, which is critical for scaling up environmental or clinical drug sensing applications.
- Surface Quality: Achieving reproducible adsorption (as required by SW-AdSV) demands exceptional surface quality. Our polishing services guarantee ultra-smooth surfaces, with Ra < 5 nm for inch-size PCD, minimizing background current and maximizing the active surface area for ADQ adsorption.
- Integrated Metalization: For seamless integration into electrochemical setups, 6CCVD offers in-house custom metalization (Au, Pt, Pd, Ti, W, Cu). This capability allows researchers to define specific contact pads or interconnects directly on the BDD surface, ensuring robust electrical connections for high-precision voltammetry.
Engineering Support
Section titled âEngineering Supportâ6CCVDâs in-house PhD team specializes in diamond material science and electrochemical applications. We offer comprehensive support for projects involving Electroanalytical Drug Sensing and environmental monitoring. Our experts can assist with:
- Optimizing boron doping levels for specific redox couples.
- Selecting the appropriate diamond grade (PCD-BDD vs. SCD-BDD) based on required surface morphology and application cost targets.
- Designing custom electrode geometries and metalization schemes for novel sensor architectures.
For custom specifications or material consultation, visit 6ccvd.com or contact our engineering team directly.
View Original Abstract
In this study, the electrochemical determination of the amodiaquine (ADQ) drug was evaluated using an electrochemically pretreated boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode due to the enhanced surface activity. The cyclic voltammogram results of ADQ were given as single reversible and diffusion-controlled peaks at +0.48 V for the oxidation peak and +0.05 V for the reduction peak (vs. Ag/AgCl) in Britton-Robinson (BR) buffer at pH 8.0. The peak potential and current signals of ADQ were evaluated at the surface of the BDD electrode using instrumental parameters to develop a simple method for ADQ detection. Also, the effect of an anionic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), on the adsorption applicability of the BDD electrode significantly increased the stripping voltammetric determination of ADQ. Under the optimal conditions chosen and employing square-wave adsorptive stripping voltammetry at the BDD electrode, ADQ was determined at + 0.34 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) at the open-circuit condition in BR buffer at pH 8.0 in the presence of 2·10-4 mol l-1 SDS. Furthermore, analytical parameters showed the linear relationship for ADQ determination in the concentration range of 0.1-20.0 Όg ml-1 (2.2·10-7 - 4.3·10-5 mol l-1), with a detection limit of 0.03 Όg ml-1 (6.5·10-8 mol l-1). The proposed approach can be applied to determine ADQ in water samples.